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The Sangam literature (Tamil language: சங்க இலக்கியம், caṅka ilakkiyam), historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil language: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ), connotes the early classical Tamil literature and is the earliest known literature of South India. The Tamil tradition links it to legendary literary gatherings around Madurai in the ancient Pandya dynasty. It is generally accepted by most scholars that the historical Sangam literature era, also known as the Sangam period, spanned from 100 BCE to 250 CE, on the basis of linguistic, epigraphic, archaeological, numismatic and historical data; though some scholars give a broader range of 300 BCE to 300 CE.
The Eighteen Greater Texts (Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku), along with the Tamil grammar work Tolkappiyam, are collectively considered as Sangam literature. These texts are classified into the Ettuttokai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattupattu (Ten Idylls). They encompass both Akam (interior) themes, focusing on personal emotions and love, and Puram (exterior) themes, emphasizing heroism, ethics, and societal values. Notable works include Akananuru (400 love poems), Purananuru (400 heroic poems), Kurunthogai (short love poems), and Natrinai (poems set in five landscapes). The Pattuppāṭṭu highlights specific regions and rulers, with works like Malaipadukadam and Perumpanarrupadai serving as guides to wealth and prosperity.
The Sangam literature had fallen into obscurity for much of the 2nd millennium CE, but were preserved by the matha near Kumbakonam. These texts were rediscovered and compiled in the 19th century by Tamil scholars, notably Mahamahopadhyaya Dr. U.V. Swaminatha Iyer. Over five decades, Iyer undertook extensive travels to locate palm-leaf manuscripts, leading to the revival of ancient Tamil history, including insights into the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms, Tamil chieftains such as Pari, and the rich descriptions of Sangam landscapes and culture.
Sangam literally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman, a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia. The first has roots in the Hindu deity Shiva, his son Murugan, Kubera as well as 545 sages including the famed Rigveda poet Agastya. The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman. The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, the Akattiyam and the Tolkāppiyam survived and guided the third Sangam scholars.
A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the eighth century CE – describes this legend. The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears in Tirupputtur Tantakam by Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-century Tiruvilaiyatal puranam by Perumparrap Nampi. The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part of Ettuttokai):
These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land masses Kumari Kandam have been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer and Classical literature should be used instead. According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such Sangam literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman, is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of the Mahabharata into Tamil" and established a "Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam".
According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry". The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such as caṅka ilakkiyam or "Sangam age poetry".
In Indian history, the Sangam period or age () is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala (then known as Tamilakam), and parts of Sri Lanka from to 300 CE. It was named after the literature of poets and scholars of the legendary Tamil Sangams centered in the city of Madurai.
In the period between 300 BCE and 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of Pandya, Chola dynasty and Chera dynasty, and a few independent chieftains, the Velirs. The evidence on the early history of the Tamil kingdoms consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data.
The fourfold Vedic system of caste hierarchy did not exist during the Sangam period. The society was organised by occupational groups living apart from each other.
Tolkappiyam, the ancient Tamil grammar text written by Tolkappiyar, consists of three parts: Eluttatikaram (Phonology), Sollatikaram (Semantics), and Porulatikaram (Context and Meaning). It is generally dated to approximately 100 BCE. However, S. Vaiyapuri Pillai suggests that Tolkappiyar was a Jain scholar well-versed in the Aintiram grammatical system and posits a later date, placing him in southern Kerala around the 5th century CE. Notably, Tolkappiyam incorporates several Sanskrit and Prakrit loanwords, reflecting its historical and linguistic context. Iravatham Mahadevan, based on epigraphic evidence, dates the text to no later than the 2nd century CE, highlighting its significance in early Tamil literary tradition.
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| First published by Narayanaswami Iyer in 1914. Quite a number of phrases appear in Tirukkural, Puram, Akam, Silapathikaram, Manimekalai. There is not many Indo-Aryan loan words. | |||
| It is a collection of short poems written by over 200 poets. The poets are from Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms. Sanskrit influence is evident from the Sanskritic names of nearly 30 poets, poetess, princess. U.V.Swaminatha Iyer published it in 1937. | |||
| Belongs to 2nd century AD. 5 groups of poems of 100 short stanzas. First published by U.V.Swaminatha Iyer in 1903 along with a detailed commentary. | |||
| Belongs to 2nd century AD. Ten Tens is a collection of ten sections of poems, sung by poets in praise of Chera kings Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, Perurncheral Irumporai etc. It was first published in 1904 by U.V.Swaminatha Iyer, who also wrote a detailed commentary. | |||
| Paripatal is a collection of poems composed in the form of prayers and praises dedicated to deities such as [[Vishnu]], Muruga, and the sacred sites of [[Alagar Kovil]] and Thiruparankundram, as well as the [[Vaigai River]]. The poems blend themes of love and religion and are crafted to be sung with music. The first edition of Paripatal was published by U.V. Swaminatha Iyer, who also provided a detailed commentary. | |||
| Late Sangam period (300 AD). Choosing husband from those who come out successful from the bull fight (Tamil: Eru thaluvudhal) is mentioned. Some authors say Kalithogai is authored by a single person but most say it is by five authors. Only three Pandya kings are mentioned. | |||
| Akananuru explores themes of love and personal emotions, set against the backdrop of five distinct landscapes (thinai). The poems vividly depict cultural practices such as marriage traditions and seasonal festivals. A recurring theme in many of these poems is the voice of the young women's friend, who plays a mediating role between the women and her lover. The verses also mention the local flora and fauna, showcasing the biodiversity. It is believed that some of the poems were composed as early as the 1st century BCE, while others belong to the middle and late Sangam periods. | |||
| First published by U.V.Swaminatha Iyer in 1894. 18 Chera, 13 Chola, 12 Pandya kings, 9 prominent chieftains such as Atiyaman, Pari, Pekan, Kari are praised in it. |
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| Kartikeya]] and are divided into six sections, each dedicated to one of Muruga's six renowned temples, praising the divine attributes. | ||
| The text refers to the 2nd century CE Chola kingdom and the river Kaveri, vividly describing the features of a woman from head to toe. It highlights the dietary habits of the people, including meat consumption and liquor drinking, and touches upon concepts such as rebirth and karma. | ||
| Ilandiraiyan]] of Kanchi and provides insights into the lifestyles of people engaged in various occupations. First published in 1889, it also references the Yavana (foreigners), as well as deities such as Lord Vishnu and Brahma. | ||
| The poem consists of 261 lines and narrates the love story of a hill tribe chieftain and a young woman. Seeing the girl's unusual behavior, her parents invite an exorcist, but her foster sister reveals the truth - that the young man saved the girl from drowning and from an elephant. This led the parents to give their consent.
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| Kedah]]. | ||
Sangam literature, both akam and puram, can be subclassified into seven minor genre called tiṇai (திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set. These are: kuṟiñci (குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions; mullai (முல்லை), pastoral forests; marutam (மருதம்), riverine agricultural land; neytal (நெய்தல்) coastal regions; pālai (பாலை) arid. In addition to the landscape based tiṇais, for akam poetry, ain-tinai (well matched, mutual love), kaikkilai (ill matched, one sided), and perunthinai (unsuited, big genre) categories are used. The Ainkurunuru – 500 short poems anthology – is an example of mutual love poetry.
Similar tiṇais pertain to puram poems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity: vetchi (cattle raid), vanchi (invasion, preparation for war), kanchi (tragedy), ulinai (siege), tumpai (battle), vakai (victory), paataan (elegy and praise), karanthai , and pothuviyal. The akam poetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community will fill in and understand given their oral tradition. The puram poetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.
The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated by Kuruntokai:
The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according to akaval, also called aciriyam, Sangam meter rule:
A literal translation of Kuruntokai 119:
English interpretation and translation of Kuruntokai 119:
This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza. The metrical patterns within the akaval meter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations. The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4). The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter in Kalittokai and the mixed Paripatal meter in Paripatal.
Arumuka Navalar from Jaffna first inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing a fine edition of Tirukkuṟaḷ by 1860.A.R. Venkatachalapathy, Enna Prayocanam?' Constructing the canon in colonial Tamilnadu, Indian Economic Social History Review 2005 42:535, p544 Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularize Shaivism against missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil and Shaivism literature to wider attention. He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 ( Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai, one of the Ten Idylls). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary on Tolkappiyam.
C.W. Damodaram Pillai, also from Jaffna, was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism.A.R. Venkatachalapathy, Enna Prayocanam?' Constructing the canon in colonial Tamilnadu, Indian Economic Social History Review 2005 42:535, p544 These included:
Aiyar – a Tamil scholar and a Shaivism pundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast of Kumbhakonam, he reached out to the monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted. There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature. Aiyar published his first print of the Ten Idylls in 1889. Iyer's relentless pursuit took him to remote villages, libraries, and private collections across Tamil Nadu, such as the Saraswathi Mahal Library in Thanjavur and temples in Madurai, Thiruvavaduthurai Saivite mutt etc.
Together, these scholars printed and published Kalittokai (1887), Tholkappiyam, Nachinarkiniyar Urai (1895), Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai (1868), Manimekalai (1898), Silappatikaram (1889), Ten Idylls (1889), Patiṟṟuppattu (1889). Puṟanāṉūṟu (1894), Aiṅkurunūṟu (1903), Kuṟuntokai (1915), Naṟṟiṇai (1915), Paripāṭal (1918) and Akanāṉūṟu (1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems.
The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam era Ainkurunuru poem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail of Brahmin boys". These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households. The Pattinappalai poem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu god Vishnu, Murugan and the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.
Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent. One of the early loan words, for example, is acarya– from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears as aciriyan (priest, teacher, scholar), aciriyam or akavar or akaval or akavu (a poetic meter).
The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is religious as well as non-religious, as there are several mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems of Paripaatal in the "Eight Anthologies" group praises Vishnu, Durga and Murugan. Sangam Literature, Encyclopaedia Britannica (2011) Similarly, the 150 poems of Kalittokai – also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Krishna, Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of the Mahabharata, Kama, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India. One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men of Varanasi", an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets. Some of the Paripaatal love poems are set in the context of bathing festivals (Magh Mela) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.
Religion in the Sangam age was an important reason for the increase in Tamil Literature. Ancient Tamils Primarily followed Vaishnavism (Who consider Vishnu as the Supreme Deity) and Kaumaram (who worship Murugan as the Supreme god). According to Kamil Zvelebil, Vishnu was considered ageless (The god who stays for ever) and the Supreme god of Tamils where as Kartikeya was considered young and a personal god of Tamils.A HISTORY OF INDIAN LITERATURE volume 10 TAMIL LITERATURE page number 49 written by Kamil Zvelebil
Mayon is indicated to be the deity associated with the mullai tiṇai (pastoral landscape) in the Tolkappiyam. Tolkappiyar Mentions Vishnu first when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions. The Paripādal (, meaning the paripadal-metre anthology) is a classical Tamil language poetic work and traditionally the fifth of the Eight Anthologies ( Ettuthokai) in the Sangam literature. According to Tolkappiyam, Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love ( akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentions Vishnu or the "dark one," as the Supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains of Tamilakam.The Earliest verses of Paripadal describe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of the Paripadal consider Vishnu as the Supreme god of Tamils. He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status of Paramporul (achieving oneness with Paramatman) during the Sangam period. He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature and considered as the most mentioned god in the Sangam literature.
Muruga "the red one", who is identified with Murugan, whose name is literally Murukaṉ "the youth" in the Tolkāppiyam; Extant Sangam literature works, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils."Kanchan Sinha, Kartikeya in Indian art and literature, Delhi: Sundeep Prakashan (1979). There are no Mentions of Shaivism in Tolkappiyam. Shiva and Brahma are said to be forms Of Vishnu and considers Vishnu as The Supreme god in Paripāṭal.Paripāṭal Poem 1 Line 50 to 56 ஐந்தலை உயிரிய அணங்குடை அருந்திறல் மைந்துடை ஒருவனும்– you are the one with five heads who causes great fear and is one of great ability and strength – Sivan, மடங்கலும்நீ – one where all lives end, நலம் முழுது அளைஇய – with all benefits, புகர்அறு காட்சிப் புலமும்– faultless learning – Vēdās, பூவனும் – you are Brahman who appeared on a flower, நாற்றமும்நீ – you are creation created by Brahman, வலன் உயர் எழிலியும் – clouds that rise up with strength, மாக விசும்பும் – wide sky, நிலனும்– land, நீடிய இமயமும்– and the tall Himalayas, நீ– you, அதனால் – so, இன்னோர் அனையை– like so and so, இனையையால்– like somebody, என– thus, அன்னோர் – those, யாம் இவண் காணாமையின் – I have not seen here, பொன் அணி நேமி – wheels decorated with gold, வலம் கொண்டு ஏந்திய – lifting on your right side or lifting with strength, மன்னுயிர் முதல்வனை – you are supreme to all the living beings on the Earth.
There are two poems depicted as example of Bhakti in Ancient Tamil Nadu, one in the praise of Maha Vishnu and the other of Murugan.
To Tirumal (Vishnu):
To Seyyon (Murugan):
The other gods also referred to in the Tolkappiyam are Vēntaṉ "the sovereign" (identified with Indra) and Korravai "the victorious" (identified with Durga) and Varuna "the sea god".
The Sangam literature also emphasized on fair governance by Kings, who were often described as Sengol-valavan, the king who established just rule; the king was warned by priests that royal injustice would lead to divine punishment; and handing over of a royal scepter, Sengol denoting decree to rule fairly, finds mention in texts such as the Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai.
Further, the colophons of the Paripaatal poems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.
(2011). 9780231521581, Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231521581
Style and prosody
The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse. The two meters found in the early poetry are akaval and vanci. The fundamental metrical unit in these is the acai (metreme), itself of two types – ner and nirai. The ner is the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while the nirai is the unstressed/short syllable combination (pyrrhic (dibrach) and iambic) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition. The acai in the Sangam poems are combined to form a cir (foot), while the cir are connected to form a talai, while the line is referred to as the ati. The of the Tolkappiyam – particularly after sutra 315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.
Preservation and rediscovery
The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such as Arumuka Navalar (1822–1879), C.W. Damodaram Pillai (1832–1901) and U. V. Swaminatha Aiyar (1855–1942)."Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature", Kamil V. Zvelebil
Significance
The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel to Sanskrit, and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancient Madurai (Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil. On their significance, Zvelebil quotes A. K. Ramanujan, "In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius."
Modern musical renditions
The first music album on Tamil Sangam poetry titled by Composer Rajan Somasundaram in collaboration with Durham Symphony, featured in Amazon's Top#10 'International Music albums' category in July 2020 and was called "A Major event in the world of Music" by The Hindu Music review.
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See also
Notes
Sources
External links
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